About Gulls
by Dave Grant
"Sea-gull, sea-gull, sit on the sand;
It's never good weather when you're on the land."

The history of vertebrate evolution is punctuated with repeated invasions of sea creatures coming to land and going back to sea again. These epic movements are responses to global environmental changes and allow vertebrates to exploit available habitat and food supplies.

Although birds will always be prisoners of the land at least during egg laying season, some groups are completely pelagic and many others spend more time over water than over land.

Four orders of birds have successfully colonized the oceans and can claim the title "seabird" - all remarkable in their successful abilities to exploit the sea's abundant resources. Seabird is a catchall term for birds belonging to these orders: Procellariformes - the "tubenoses," albatrosses, fulmars, shearwaters, and petrels; Sphenisciformes - the penguins; Pelecaniformes - the pelicans, cormorants, gannets, and frigatebirds; and Charadriiformes - the shorebirds, gulls, skimmers, terns and alcids.

Albatrosses and their allies are the most oceanic group of flying birds and spend most of their lives far from land. Penguins are so specialized for living in water that they have given up the power of flight for more functional flippers. Pelicans and their allies are large fisheating birds that can dive for food from great heights, or swim underwater. These three orders of seabirds exhibit numerous specialized features for making a living from the oceans.

The fourth order, Charadriiformes, also incorporates most of those features and is probably the most diverse group of birds on land or sea. Wherever water and land meet or food abounds, members of this group will be present. Over the oceans they are indicators of the productivity of the waters below. Where the sea teems with fish, they congregate by the thousands, an unmistakable beacon to fishermen and those who study marine life. This remarkable group has managed to exploit every accessible food source and habitat in the sea, and has also made notable inroads on land.

Jaegers and skuas are fast flying predators that rob food from other birds. Shorebirds probe sand and mud or stab among rocks for their food. Alcids (auks, puffins, and guillemots) look and act like penguins. Gulls range from mid-ocean to the middle of most continents. Terns dive into the water head first after fish. And some like the woodcock are nocturnal; others like the killdeer may never even see the ocean.

The order contains hundreds of species, 72 percent of which are either shorebirds, gulls, or terns. I spend a lot of time watching gulls and terns because I am interested in their behavior. They are always available and easily observed, and like them, I prefer to be near large bodies of water. My interest and perhaps the stimulus that first aroused my interest in birds were the gulls I encountered on childhood fishing expeditions. I was impressed, and still am, by their noisiness and bold stares. Typically, I wouldn't come home with any fish because the gulls would beg, borrow, or steal all the bait ... an arrangement that continues today.

Reading Tinbergen's classic studies on the behavior of herring gulls (The Herring Gull's World) furthered my curiosity about birds in general. Later, work as a tern warden narrowed my interest to these seabirds that are such an integral part of our coast.

Gull-like birds have probably been conspicuous in the bird world since the beginning. In studying the genealogy of gulls and terns, we are hampered by a paucity of fossil evidence. Being hollow-boned, fragile, and easily carried away (and eaten) dead birds are rarely preserved. A few bones or fragments constitute a good find in most cases even today. Another problem is that plucked of their feathers, birds look quite similar to one another, keeping evolutionary relationships obscure. Compared to other groups like mammals, there are simply fewer clues available to the paleontologist.

However a few remarkable fossil discoveries have shown us that birds evolved from reptiles at about the same time as the first primitive mammals, during the Jurassic period over 130 million years ago. Archaeopteryx, a crow-sized creature with teeth, solid bones, and other reptilian features lived near lagoons where it was fossilized. Also preserved in its limestone fossil bed were the faint impressions of feathers, indisputable bird-like features.

During the Cretaceous period other primitive birds evolved, but their fossils are also scarce. Hesperornis was a foot- propelled "toothed" bird, looking and presumably living like a flightless cormorant. Ichthyornis ("fish-bird"), looked remarkably gull-like and could fly. Although both birds died out with the dinosaurs, they give us a glimpse into the primitive world of birds and it would appear that these early birds were not hunting worms, but were closely tied to the coast and its water and fish. By the Eocene, beginning 63 million years ago, there were at least 27 families of modern birds present, including the gulls.

By the Pliocene, 10 million years ago, most modern genera of birds were established, and by the Pleistocene period (the Ice Ages) there were perhaps 2000 more species present than today. During those last million years and until about 10,000 years ago, the advances and retreats of the continental glaciers dramatically altered the climate and the level of the ocean. Plants and animals shifted back and forth in response to these changes. Many species were exterminated and the present assortment of bird life was established. It is thought that since the Ice Ages avian evolution has been primarily at the subspecific level.

Today there are some 8600 species of birds divided into the various orders according to gross features like bill shape, feet, and skeletal similarities. Each order is comprised of smaller groups or families that share more specific features. Each family is separated into genera that look similar, and finally species, such as gulls and terns.

The family Laridae includes only the gulls and terns and has 87 species worldwide. North America is home to almost half of them. Subfamilies are Larinae, the gulls, and Sterninae, the terns. Skimmers appear to be closely related to the terns, but are unique enough to warrant their own separate family, Rynchopidae. However because they are so similar to the terns in nesting habits, I will lump them together for the purposes of this discussion.

Although the term "seagull" may be the most common bird name in literature, the kittiwake, a gull that is almost never seen from land, is really the only gull deserving of this romantic title. However, gulls are so graceful and such an integral feature of our mental picture of the ocean, that even those of us who know better are inclined to call them seagulls.

Gulls have been feared and revered for centuries. British seamen considered it bad luck to kill one because these aimless wanderers over the waves are the spirits of drowned sailors and fishermen. A lone gull flying in a straight line low over the sea is said to be an aimless spirit following a corpse in the water. A gull flying against a window is a warning of impending doom to a family member at sea. Worse, a group of three gulls flying overhead is a harbinger of death or misfortune to the observer or someone close to him. Finally, never feed a gull or look one straight in the eye, for one day if you are trying to save yourself from a shipwreck, it will find you and peck out your eyes.

So much for the dark side of gull lore. In the Middle Atlantic region, laughing gulls are as sure a sign of spring as the robins. Also they are entertaining and useful, feeding on insect pests, and scavenging our refuse on land and the fishermen's offal at sea.

Gulls don't behave heroically, but they have been heroes. In 1841 a plague of long-horned grasshoppers threatened to wipe out the crops of the Mormon pioneers near Great Salt Lake, but flocks of California gulls, filling the sky "until the heavens were darkened ... devoured all the crickets." For its miraculous work, the California gull (Utah's state bird) was rewarded with the famous Sea Gull Monument in Temple Square, Salt Lake City. In 1947 a less celebrated rescue occurred in Scotland, where caterpillars threatening the oak forest of Perthshire, were decimated by brown-headed gulls - small, tem-like birds that occasionally appear off our coast, too.

It is because gulls wander so widely and in such numbers, that they are able to bring their ravenous appetites to bear on sudden outbreaks of pests like the Mormon cricket, a wide range of other insects, and even field mice and ground squirrels.

Gulls are primarily birds of the northern hemisphere. If persistent and near water, birdwatchers in the East have a fair chance of spotting more than 10 species. Finding gulls is simple. However, recognizing different species can be difficult because of the generally gray and white plumage pattern shared by most of the group. Identification is further complicated by the fact that these birds take several years to mature, go through several molts during that period, and may have a winter as well as summer plumage.

Features to concentrate on while spotting for different gull species include: the color of the back or saddle, bill, legs, wing tips and tail; shape, compared to the other common gulls in the area; and flight patterns that look atypical. Other obvious features like black heads are diagnostic, but vary with the seasons. A field guide is essential.

Immature birds are the most difficult to identify positively, and on more than one occasion you'll find yourself qualifying your pronouncements with, "But what else could it be?" Gulls do help us by spending extended periods standing still while we get a better look, but sometimes even that is not enough.

Winter is the season for gull watching. You can expect to find the greatest number and variety of them where there is water and food. Water is the main attraction to most gulls; food keeps them around. A little ice doesn't hurt either. It concentrates them near the open water and provides a secure resting place. (If the thought of going outdoors to seek out such extremes leaves you cold, remember, there are plenty of docks and waterfront parks that provide parking near the water. So you don't necessarily have to leave your car.)

Many inland lakes attract "sea gulls" and although they are generally the most pedestrian varieties - herring and ringbilled gulls - it affords you a great opportunity to refine your skills differentiating the two species and recognizing each in their adult and juvenile plumages. This is not the easiest feat in birding and requires considerable practice.

Coastal ponds (fresh or brackish water) are a logical and valuable next step in your search. An interesting assortment of gulls and other birds regularly visit these sites to drink, preen, and rest. For some of us, this is the closest we get to observing their antics at sea and occasionally there are memorable interactions between birds. Many shore communities have parks with ponds and a road map will help you plot out a few worthwhile side trips to them. One note of caution, however. Avoid getting sidetracked with ducks and other non-larids. I find the gulls quickly fade from view when a hooded merganser pops up.

Public docks and wharves generally have ample parking with good views of the water. They also attract fish and fishermen, which attract gulls. Several of my red-letter days in gull watching have been on painfully cold days, inside the car, parked at the docks. Here in the warmth of the car blind I can marvel at the fortitude of gulls and the gloveless fishermen.

Moving water attracts gulls and fishermen, so dams and spillways are logical places you will want to check out. In the winter the turbulence downstream keeps rivers open and free of ice. As a result gulls and other birds tend to congregate in large numbers. Marshes, mud flats, bridges, and jetties also break up the ice and are excellent sites to look for gulls, especially where there is considerable wave or tide action.

At some point you will resign yourself to leaving the car and braving the cold. Wind is the biggest enemy on these occasions. It hurts, makes your eyes tear, your binoculars wobble, and birds difficult to watch. Avoid it. On stormy days the gulls often rest at ponds or grassy parks anyway. There are plenty of calm winter days and calmer portions of most days. When you can get out, hike the beach as far as you can go. Birds will often congregate at the tips of spits and other points of land where they are less likely to be flushed by beachcombers and their dogs. Occasionally sit and scan the horizon. The gulls will be out there - mobs of them. With patience you will discover they are not all the same and recognize kittiwakes and Bonaparte's among the abundant herring and black-backed gulls.

As you get more adventurous take a ferry ride just to watch birds. Scan the horizon. Periodically check what is following the vessel and watch ahead to see what birds take off as you approach. You can't overdress for this. The Cape May Ferry is as far from land as you can get in our area, but it is a comfortable trip even in bad weather. Even the Staten Island Ferry can give good results.

If you have a stomach for it, the next logical step is to spend a day on a fishing boat. This can be most exciting and rewarding. But if you don't like to fish, can't stand the cold, and get bored easily ... don't do it. As they say, "You can't buy the boat from the captain and come home once you are out there."

Finally don't forget the dumps. For gulls, landfills have it all. They are usually near marshes or estuaries and there is natural food and rubbish to scavenge. Phenomenal concentrations of gulls are found here and regard for your olfactory capabilities, which gulls lack, make winter the logical time to visit anyway. A sharp-eyed gull watcher will spot some of our uncommon visitors like glaucous and lesser black-backed gulls among the multitudes of herring and greater black-backs. They're also great places to meet other serious gull watchers.

As the weather warms in the late spring, it is advantageous to move along and check out freshly plowed fields for laughing and ring-billed gulls. Both follow the plow in numbers and rely heavily on worms and insects when they are migrating north.

Although many gulls linger in the Middle Atlantic area during the summer and some breed here, there are more exciting finds back along the shore. Spring means terns will be arriving soon to fish and breed, and that is something you don't want to miss.

Something to think about:

Suggested Readings

General Guides

Austin, Oliver L., Jr. 1985. Families of Birds. Golden Press.
Farrand, John L. (ed) 1983. The Audubon Society Master Guide to Birding. (3 vols.). Knopf.
Grant, P.J. 1986. Gulls: an Identification. (2nd ed.). Powser.
National Geographic Society. 1983. Field Guide to the Birds of North America. Kingsport Press.
Peterson, Roger Tory. 1980. A Field Guide to the Birds. Houghton Mifflin.
Robbins, Chandler S., Bertel Brunn and Herbert S. Zim. 1983. A Guide to Field Identification. Birds of North America. Golden Press

Shore and Ocean Birds
Natural History

Ehrlich, Paul R., David S. Dobkin and Darryl Wheye. 1988. The Birder's Handbook. A Field Guide to the Natural History of North American Birds. Simon and Schuster.
Hayman, Peter, John Marchant and Tony Prater. 1986. Shorebirds: An Identification Guide to the Waders of the World. Houghton Mifflin.
Lockley, R.M. 1974. Ocean Wanderers. The Migratory Seabirds of the World. Stackpole Books.
Lofgren, Lars. 1984. Ocean Birds. Crescent Books.
Tinbergen, Niko. 1968. The Herring Gull's World. Lyons & Burford.

Hawks Natural History

Breit, James. 1986. The Mountain and the Migration. Hawk Mountain Sanctuary Assoc, Kempton, PA.
Clark, William S. and Brian K. Wheeler. 1987. Hawks. (Peterson Field Guide Series). Houghton Mifflin.
Dunne, Pete, Debbie Keller and Rene Kochenberger. 1984. Hawk Watch: A Guide for Beginners. New Jersey Audubon Soc., Cape May Point, NJ.
Dunne, Pete, David Sibley and Clay Sutton. 1988. Hawks in Flight (The Flight Identification of North American Raptors). Houghton Mifflin.
Heintzelman, Donald S. 1979. A Guide to Hawk Watching in North America. Keystone Bks, Penn. State University Press.
Kellogg, Seth (ed). The Newsletter of the Hawk Migration Association of North America. Myriam Moore, Secretary, 32 Columbia Ave., Lynchburg, VA 24503.
Kerlinger, Paul. 1989. Flight Strategies of Migrating Hawks. University of Chicago Press.
Newton, Ian. 1979. Population Ecology of Raptors. Buteo Books. Vermillion, SD.
Poole, Alan F. 1989. Ospreys. A Natural and Unnatural History. Cambridge University Press.

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